sta630 solved final term papers Virtual University of Pakistan
What is bibliography and reference. 3 Lecture No 45
•
A bibliography is the listing of the works that are relevant to the topic
of research interest arranged in alphabetical order of the last names of
authors.
•
A reference list is a subset of the bibliography, which includes details
of all the citations used in the literature survey and elsewhere in the report,
arranged again, in the alphabetical order of the last names of authors.
How a topic can be selected for secondary analysis?
Selecting
Topic for Secondary Analysis
Search
through the collections of information with research question and variables in
mind, and then reassemble the information in new ways to address the research
question.
It
is difficult to specify topics that are appropriate for existing statistics
research because they are so varied. Any topic on which information has been
collected and is publicly available can be studied. In fact, existing
statistics projects may not neatly fit into a deductive model of research
design. Rather researchers creatively recognize the existing information into
the variables for a research question after first finding what data are
available.
Question No:
50 ( Marks: 3 )
Read the given information and write the reference of
an Unpublished Manuscript:
Unpublished
Manuscript
Kashoor,
M. A. (2005). Training and development in the ‘90s. Unpublished
manuscript,
Virtual University.
Author: Kashoor, M. A
Title of the Manuscript: Training and development in the
‘90s.
Year of publication: (2005)
Place of the publisher: Virtual University.
Question No:
51 ( Marks: 5 )
What is bracketing
with regard to historical comparative research?
H-C
researchers attempt to read primary sources with the eyes and assumptions of a
contemporary who lived in the past. This means “bracketing,” or holding back knowledge of subsequent events and
modern values. “If you do not read the primary sources with an open mind and an
intention to get inside the minds of the writings and look at things the way they saw
them, you are wasting time.” For example, when reading a source produced by a
slaveholder, moralizing against slavery or faulting the author for not seeing
its evil is not worthwhile. The H-C researcher holds back moral judgments and
becomes a moral relativist while reading primary sources. He or she must think
and believe likesubjects under study, discover how they performed in their own
eyes.
Question No:
53 ( Marks: 5 )
What is the problem of
statistical regression and how it can be overcome?
Statistical
Regression: Statistical regression is not easy to grasp
intuitively. It is a problem of extreme values or a tendency for random error
to move group results towards the average. If extremes are taken then they tend
to regress toward the mean. Those who are on either end of the extreme would
not truly reflect the cause and effect relationship.
One
situation arises when subjects are unusual with regard to dependent variable. Because
they begin as unusual or extreme, subjects are likely to respond further in the
same direction. For example, a researcher wants to see whether violent films
make people act violently. The researcher chooses a group of violent criminals
from a high security prison, gives them a pretest, shows violent films, and
then administers a posttest. To the researcher’s surprise, the criminals are
slightly less violent after the film, whereas a control group of non-prisoners
who did see the film are slightly more violent than before. Because the violent
criminals began at an extreme, it is unlikely that a treatment could make them
more violent; by random chance alone, they appear less extreme when measured a
second time.
1) Involvement
with deviants is the Ethical
dilemmah of filed Research how would explain (Marks 3) Pag.140 Ch.39
Ethical Dilemmas of Field research
The
direct personal involvement of a field researcher in the social lives of other
people raises many ethical dilemmas. The dilemmas arise when the researcher is
alone in the field and has little time to make a moral decision. Although he or
she may be aware of general ethical issues before entering the field, they
arise unexpectedly in the course of observing and interacting in the field.
Deception and confidentiality
Deception: Deception arises in several ways in
field research: The research may be covert; or may assume a false role, name,
or identity; or may mislead members in some way. The most hotly debated of the
ethical issues arising from deception is that of covert versus overt field
research. Some support it and see it as necessary for entering into and aiming
a full knowledge of many areas of social life.
Others
oppose it and argue that it undermines a trust between researchers and society.
Although its moral status is questionable, there are
some field sites or activities that can only be studied covertly.
One
may have to look into the cost and benefit equation; where the researcher is
the best judge.
Covert
research is never preferable and never easier than overt research because of
the difficulties of maintaining a front and the constant fear of getting
caught.
Confidentiality: A researcher learns intimate knowledge
that is given in confidence. He or she has a moral obligation to uphold the
confidentiality of data. This includes keeping information confidential from
others in the field and disguising members’ names in field notes.
2)
How Researchers locate evidence in historical comparative research
(Marks 3) Ch.No. 41
Data and Evidence in Historical context
Historical-comparative
researchers draw on four types historical evidence or data:
1. Primary
sources;
2. Secondary
sources;
3. Running
records; and
4. Recollections.
Traditional
historians rely heavily on primary sources. H-C researchers often use secondary
sources or the different data types in combination.
3) Does historical comparative Research follow scientific approach or not
Discuss (Marks 5) Ch.No. 41
Historical-Comparative research follows scientific approach:
• Can
be a survey of events in history – could be through the study of documents.
Organizations generally document themselves, so if one is studying the
development of some organization he/she should examine its official documents:
charters, policy statements, speeches by the leaders, and so on. Often,
official government documents provide the data needed for analysis. To better
appreciate the history of race relations in the United States
One
could also do the communication analysis of different documents related to a
particular issue (like the communication among the leaders of Pakistan
Researcher
could also get lot of information by interviewing people who may recall
historical events (like interviewing participants in the Pakistan
• Historical-Comparative
researchers mostly do a longitudinal analysis i.e. look into the developmental
processes of the issues under reference.
• Historical
–Comparative researchers make cross-cultural comparisons of the social forms or
economic form as well as the developmental processes of those forms, aiming at
making generalizations
4) Briefly explain the important of measurement and coding in non Research
with the help of example (Marks 5) Pag.99
Ch.29
Measurement and Coding
Careful
measurement is crucial in content analysis because a researcher takes different
and murky symbolic communication and turns it into precise, objective,
quantitative data. He or she carefully designs and documents
the procedures for coding to make replication possible. For example, a
researcher wants to determine how frequently television dramas portray elderly
characters in terms of negative stereotypes. He or she develops a measure of
the construct “negatively stereotypes of the elderly.” The conceptualization
may result in a list of stereotypes or negative generalizations about older
people (e.g., senile, forgetful, frail, hard of hearing, slow, ill, inactive,
conservative, etc.) that do not accurately reflect the elderly. Another example
could be negative stereotypes about women.
5)
What are the
advantages of cluster sampling (Marks 5) Pag.94 Ch.28
This sampling
technique is cheap, quick and easy. Instead of sampling
an entire country when using simple random sampling, the researcher can allocate
his limited resources to the few randomly selected clusters or areas when using
cluster samples. the researcher can also increase his sample size with this
technique.
From all the
different type of probability
sampling, this technique is the least representative of the population.
This is also a
probability sampling technique with a possibility of high sampling error.
Economy: The
two major concerns of expenditure when it comes to sampling are traveling and
listing. They are greatly reduced when it comes to cluster sampling.
Less costly.
Don't need a
list.
6) Do u explain inferences from non-reactive data by using secondary survey
data 3 (page No.129, Ch#37)
Inferences from Non-Reactive Data:
A
researcher’s ability to infer causality or to test a theory on the basis of
non-reactive data is limited. It is difficult to use unobtrusive measures to
establish temporal order and eliminate alternative explanations. In content
analysis, a researcher cannot generalize from the content to its effects on
those who read the text, but can only use the correlation logic of survey
research to show an association among variables. Unlike the case of survey
research, a researcher does not ask respondents direct questions to measure
variables, but relies on the information available in thee text.
7)
Research
process, once u collect the data how u would perform the scoring index activity
3 marks (Page No.103 Ch#30)
•
Remember the measurement of job satisfaction. (dimensions and elements).
•
Number of statements on each element.
•
Likert scale (5) response categories: Strongly agree, agree, neutral,
disagree, s. disagree.
•
There are positive and negative statements.
•
For positive statements, score S. agree = 5, agree = 4, neutral = 3,
disagree = 2, s. disagree = 1.
•
For negative statements reverse the scoring.
8) 51) Would u explain spontaneity and confession by using secondary data?
Give example each 5 marks Pag 129.
Ch.37
Spontaneity: The spontaneous actions or feelings can
be recorded when they occurred rather than at a time specified by the
researcher. If the respondent was keeping a diary, he or she may have been
recording spontaneous feelings about a subject whenever he or she was inspired
to do so. The contents of such personal recording could be analyzed later on.
Confessions: A person may be more likely to confess
in a document, particularly one to be read only after his or her death, than in
an interview or mailed questionnaire study. Thus a study of documents such as
diaries, posthumously published autobiographies, and suicide notes may be the
only way to obtain such information.
9)
Do u know about
number and duration in FDG discussion 5 marks
Number
and duration of sessions: The number of focus
group sessions to be conducted depends upon project needs, resources,
and whether new information is still coming from the sessions (that is, whether
contrasting views from various groups in the community are still emerging). One
should plan to conduct at least two different focus group discussions for each
subgroup (for example two for males and two for females). For duration,
a focus group session typically lasts up to an hour and a half. Generally the
first session with a particular type of group is longer than the following ones
because all of the information is new. Thereafter, if it becomes clear that all
the groups have the same opinion on particular topics, the facilitator may be
able to move the discussion along more quickly to other topics that still
elicit new points of view.
10)
Suggest the
appropriate data collection tool that can be used by the research organization.
Give the solid rationale for your answer.
Secondary
data are usually historical, already assembled, and do not require access to
respondents or subjects. Many types of information about the social and
behavioral world have been collected and are available to the researcher. Some
information is in the form of statistical documents (books, reports) that
contain numerical information. Other information is in the form of published
compilations available in a library or on computerized records.
Secondary
data may be collected by large bureaucratic organization like the Bureau of
Statistics or other government or private agencies. These data may have been
collected for policy decisions or as part of public service.
11)
What is
bracketing with regard to Historical comparative research? Ch.40 & 41
H-C
researchers attempt to read primary sources with the eyes and assumptions of a
contemporary who lived in the past. This means “bracketing,” or holding back
knowledge of subsequent events and modern values. “If you do not read the
primary sources with an open mind and an intention to get inside the minds of
the writings and look at things the way they saw
them, you are wasting time.” For example, when reading a source produced by a
slaveholder, moralizing against slavery or faulting the author for not seeing
its evil is not worthwhile.
12)
How would you
differentiate accretion and count behaviors in Non Reactive Research? Pag.124. Ch.36
Accretion: Accumulation of physical evidence
suggests behavior. A researcher examines the soft drink cans or bottles in the
garbage collection. That might indicate the brands and types of soft drinks
that are very popular.
Count Behaviors: Counting how many people do something
can be informative. For example a researcher may count the number of men and
women who come to a full stop and those who come to a rolling stop at a traffic
stop sign. This suggests gender difference in driving behavior.
13)
Treatment of
Independent variable? Ch.06
Independent Variable:
An independent variable is the variable you have control over, what you
can choose and manipulate. It is usually what you think will affect the
dependent variable. In some cases, you may not be able to manipulate the
independent variable. It may be something that is already there and is fixed,
something you would like to evaluate with respect to how it affects something
else, the dependent variable like color, kind, time.
Example: You are interested in how stress affects heart rate in humans.
Your independent variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would
be the heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in your human
subjects and measure how those stress levels change heart rate.
14)
Pretest and
posttest experimental and control group design? Pag.118, Ch.34
Pretest and Posttest Experimental and Control Group Design: Two
groups, one control group and the other experimental group, are formed
randomly. Both the groups are exposed to pretest and posttest.
The
experimental group is exposed to treatment while the control group is not.
Measuring the difference between the differences in the post- and pretests of
the two groups would give the net effects of the treatment.
Experimental Group: Pretest (O1) X Posttest (O2)
Control
Group: Pretest (O3) - Posttest (O4)
Randomization
used for setting up the group.
[(O2
– O1) – (O4 – O3)] = Treatment effect (could be anywhere between 0 to -1 or
+1).
16) How
would you differentiate between History Effect and Mechanical Loss in
Experimental research? Pag.120. Ch.
History Effect: A specific event in the external
environment occurring between the first and second measurement that is beyond
the control of the experimenter and that affects the validity of an experiment.
Advertisement of a particular product (mineral water) and its sale is affected
by an event in the society (contamination of drinking water). The researcher
does not have control on such happenings which have an impact on the X and Y
relationship.
Mechanical Loss: A problem may be experienced due to
equipment failure. For example, in an experiment if the subjects are told that
their behavior is being video taped, and during the experiment the video
equipment failed to work for some subjects, then the validity of the results
could become doubtful.
17)
Write a note on
any three varieties of non reactive observations. Pag#124 Ch:36
Varieties of Non-Reactive Observations
Non-reactive
measures are varied, and researchers have been creative in inventing indirect
ways to measures behaviors. Because the measures have little in common except
being non-reactive, they are best learned through examples like:
Physical Traces:
• Erosion:
Wear and tear suggests a greater use. For example, a researcher examines
children’s toys at a children’s play centre that were purchased at the same
time. Worn out toys suggest greater interest of children in them.
• Accretion:
Accumulation
of physical evidence suggests behavior. A researcher examines the soft drink
cans or bottles in the garbage collection. That might indicate the brands and
types of soft drinks that are very popular.
Archives:
• Running
Records: Regularly
produced public records may reveal lot of information. For example, a
researcher may examine marriage records for brides’ and grooms’ recorded ages.
The
differences might indicate that males marrying younger females are greater than
the other way around.
• Other
Records: Irregular
or private records can reveal a lot. For example, a researcher may look into
the number of reams of paper purchased by a college principal’s office for the
last 10 years and compare it with students’ enrollment.
Observations:
• External
Appearance: How people appear may indicate social factors. For
example, a researcher watches students to see whether they are more likely to
wear their college’s colors and symbols after the college team won or lost.
• Count
Behaviors: Counting how many people do something can be
informative. For example a researcher may count the number of men and women who
come to a full stop and those who come to a rolling stop at a traffic stop
sign. This suggests gender difference in driving behavior.
• Time
Duration: How
long people take to do things may indicate their intention. For example a
researcher may measure how long men and women pause in front of a particular
painting.
Time
taken may indicate their interest in the painting.
No comments:
Post a Comment