How would you differentiate between Frequency Distribution Table and Bivariate Table?

18)   How would you differentiate between Frequency Distribution Table and Bivariate Table? Pag#105 Ch:31

For example we have data of 400 students. We can summarize the data on the gender of the students at a glance with raw count or a frequency distribution

Table 1: Frequency distribution of students

Gender                        Frequency                   Percent

Male                            300                              75

Female                         100                              25

Total                           400                              100

We can present the same information in a graphic form. Some common types of graphic presentations are the histograms, bar chart, and pie chart.

For example, a bivariate table shows that young people show more favorable attitude towards women empowerment. But the relationship between age and attitude towards women empowerment may be spurious because men and women may have different attitudes. A bivariate table has 12 cells, the partials have 3 X 12 = 36 cells. An average of five cases per cell is recommended, so the researcher will need 5 X 36 = 180 cases at minimum.

19)   Being a researcher, how would you criticize the use of Secondary Data in research? Ch#37

 Bias: Many documents used in research were not originally intended for research purposes. The various goals and purposes for which documents are written can bias them in various ways.

Selective survival: Since documents are usually written on paper, they do not withstand the elements well unless care is taken to preserve them.

Incompleteness: Many documents provide incomplete account to the researcher who has had no prior experience with or knowledge of the events or behavior discussed.

Lack of availability of documents: In addition to thee bias, incompleteness, and selective survival of documents, there are many areas of study for which no documents are available. In many cases information simply was never recorded.

Limited to verbal behavior: By definition, documents provide information only about respondent’s verbal behavior, and provide no direct information on the respondent’s nonverbal behavior, either that of the document’s author or other characters in the document.

Sampling bias: One of the problems of bias occurs because persons of lower educational or income levels are less likely to be represented in the sampling frames

Lack of standardized format: many other documents, particularly personal documents have no standard format.

Data must be adjusted for comparability over time: the change in measuring distance, temperature, currency, and even literacy in Pakistan.

What are different measures of central tendency are used define each.Pag#105

 Three measures of central tendency, or measures of the center of the frequency distribution: mean,

median and mode, which are often called averages (a less precise and less clear way to say the same thing). The mode is simply the most common or frequently occurring number. The median is the middle point. The mean also called the arithmetic average, is the most widely used measure of central tendency.

What are the functions of recorders?

Functions of the Recorder

The recorder should keep a record of the content of the discussion as well as emotional reactions and important aspects of group interaction. Assessment of the emotional tone of the meeting and the group process will enable the researcher to judge the validity of the information collected during the FGD.

Record the following:

• Date, time, and place:

• Names and characteristics of participants:

• General description of the group dynamics (level of participation, presence of a dominant participant, level of interest):

• Opinions of participants, recorded as much as possible in their own words, especially for key statements: and

• Vocabulary used, particularly in focus group discussions that are intended to assist in developing questionnaire or other material as stipulated under the topic.

What is the different ethical issue related to validity Ch#13

Ethical Issues

• Remain to be issues.

• Local norms suggest what ought to be done under the given circumstances.

• Codes of ethics developed to guide researchers and sponsors.

• Review Boards and peer groups help sorting out ethical dilemmas.

What do u know about content analysis?-3    Pag#125 Ch#36

Content Analysis

Content analysis is a technique for gathering and analyzing the content of a text. The content refers to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or any message that can be communicated. The text is anything written, visual, or spoken that serves as a medium of communication. Possible artifacts for study could be books, newspaper or magazine articles, advertisements, poems, letters, laws,

constitutions, dramas, speeches, official documents, films or videotapes, musical lyrics, photographs, articles of clothing, or works of arts. All these works may be called as documents. The documents can be:

• Personal – letters, diary, autobiography.

• Non-personal – interoffice memos, official documents, proceedings of a meeting.

• Mass media – newspapers, magazines, fiction, films, songs, poems, works of arts.

Content analysis goes back nearly a century and is used in many fields – literature, history, journalism, political science, education, psychology, sociology, and so on. It is also called a study of communication, which means who says what, to whom, why, how, and with what effect. In content analysis, the researcher uses objective and systematic counting and recording procedures to produce a quantitative description of the symbolic content in a text. It may also be called “textual coding.” There are qualitative versions of content analysis. The emphasis here is quantitative data about a text’s content.

Historical Comparative Research depends upon some factors. list down those?- Ch#40

Historical-comparative research is suited for examining the combination of societal factors that produce a specific outcome (e.g., civil war). It is also appropriate for comparing entire social system to see what is common across societies and what is unique, and to study long term change.

Using APA style, describe quotations, i-e what is their format in writting a litrature view?- Ch#45

 Yeh book main se dekho

Parts of executive summary 5marks       Pag#161

 The summary should be written only after the rest of the report is completed. It represents the essence of the report. Two to three pages are generally sufficient for a properly condensed summary. (For very big reports which run into number of volumes, like the one finds in the feasibility reports of big projects, the summary may be very big.) The summary should be written to be self-sufficient. In fact, it is not uncommon for a summary to be detached from the report and circulated it.

The summary contains four elements:

1. The objectives of the report are stated, including the most important background and specific purposes of the project.

2. The major results are presented. The key results regarding each purpose should be included.

3. The conclusions that are based on the results. There should be logical interpretation of the results which could lead to the stated conclusions.

4. The recommendations or suggestions for action, which are based on the conclusions. The recommendations must logically emerge from the results.

Note: In many reports you may see that the executive summary comes first which is followed by the table of contents.

For students writing their thesis, in place of executive summary, they write an abstract of their thesis.

This abstract is usually of one or two paragraphs. Abstract has information on the topic, the research problem, the basic findings, and any ‘unusual’ research design or data collection features.

Parts of research report 3marks  

The Makeup of the Report – the Report Parts

• Prefatory parts

1. Title fly page

2. Title page

3. Letter of transmittal

4. Letter of authorization

5. Table of contents

6. Executive summary

• Main body

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

3. Results

4. Conclusions and recommendations

5. References

• Appended parts

1. Data collection forms (questionnaires, checklist, interview guide, other forms)

2. Detailed calculations

3. General tables

4. Other support material

5. Bibliography, if needed

Components of Bivariate Tables 3marks

Bivariate Tables

The bivariate contingency table is widely used. The table is based on cross-tabulation (crossclassification); that is the cases are organized in the table on the basis of two variables at the same time. A contingency table is formed by cross-tabulating the two or more variables. It is contingent because the cases in each category of a variable get distributed into each category of a second variable. The table distributes cases into categories of multiple variables at the same time and shows how the cases, by the category of one variable, are “contingent upon” the categories of the other variables.

How we can use secondary analysis

Secondary analysis is a special case of existing statistics; it is reanalysis of previously collected survey or other data that was originally gathered by others. As opposed to primary research (e.g., experiments, surveys, and content analysis), the focus is on analyzing rather than collecting data.

Secondary analysis is increasingly used by researchers. It is relatively inexpensive; it permits Comparisons across groups, nations, or time; it facilitates replication; and permits asking about issues not thought by the original researchers. There are several questions the researcher interested in secondary research should ask: Are the secondary data appropriate for the research question? What theory and hypothesis can a researcher use with the data? Is the researcher already familiar with the substantive area? Does the researcher understand how the data were originally gathered and coded? Large-scale data collection is expensive and difficult. The cost and time required for major national surveys that uses rigorous techniques are prohibitive for most researchers. Fortunately, the organization, preservation, and dissemination of major survey data sets have improved. Today, there are archives of past surveys open to researchers (e.g., data on Population Census of Pakistan, Demographic Survey of Pakistan).

53) Reference format  5 marks.

Author: Abraham Maslow

Name of Journal: International journal of psychology

Title: Need hierarchy theory

Page number: 20-23

Year of publish: 1946

What is bibliography and reference. 3 Lecture No 45

•         A bibliography is the listing of the works that are relevant to the topic of research interest arranged in alphabetical order of the last names of authors.

•         A reference list is a subset of the bibliography, which includes details of all the citations used in the literature survey and elsewhere in the report, arranged again, in the alphabetical order of the last names of authors.

What do we write in executive summary of a research report?

Executive Summary of Research Report:

It is very important part of the report. And it is observed that mostly managers read summary report normally and rest members read whole report.

The summary contains four elements:

1. The objectives of the report are stated, including the most important background and specific purposes of the project.

2. The major results are presented. The key results regarding each purpose should be included.

3. The conclusions that are based on the results. There should be logical interpretation of the results which could lead to the stated conclusions.

4. The recommendations or suggestions for action, which are based on the conclusions. The recommendations must logically emerge from the results.